As the East India Company annexed Indian states in the 1840s and 1850s, the Indian soldiers in the company's employ began to feel offended. What are the oldest known civilizations of India? Feature Flags: { He survived and was put on trial and hanged on April 8, 1857. @kindle.com emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply. Mason, Philip (1974), page 190 "A Matter of Honour", London: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston. Mason, Philip (1974), page 264 "A Matter of Honour", London: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston. Increasing numbers of Christian missionaries began arriving in India, and their presence gave credence to rumors of impending conversions. The greased cartridges had to be opened by biting off the top with your teeth. The Lucknow garrison held out in the residency from July 1, in spite of the death of Sir Henry Lawrence on July 4. McNamara, Robert. was the rumour that the newly issued rie cartridges would be greased either with tallow, derived from beef and thereby oensive to Hindus, or lard, derived from pork and thereby oensive to Muslims. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/sepoy-mutiny-of-1857-1774014. Whether the cartridge was unballed or balled, it was necessary, in loading a muzzle-loader, to open the end of the cartridge. "The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857." Ferocity led to grave excesses on both sides, distinguishing this war in horror from other wars of the 19th century. Beyond that, however, opinions remained divided. Indian soldiers had to blow the cartridge which was made of pork and beef. It is called the chupatty movement. . The Company had upgraded to the new Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle, which used greased paper cartridges. Thus, long after the chapattis reached their northern-most point of Meerut, there was another northwards distribution from Cawnpore to Fattehgarh, which was widely reported in the newspapers The circulation took place along well-established routes of transmission, which followed the main trade and pilgrimage routes between the bigger cities. . They bore no message, and were identical to the breads cooked in every home in India, a staple part (even today) of the locals diet. He is on the expert panel on weapons for several museums of Rajasthan. [6]. | READ MORE. More disturbing to traditional sensibilities were the interventions, in the name of humanity, in the realm of Hindu custome.g., the prohibition of suttee, the campaign against infanticide, the law legalizing remarriage of Hindu widows. And, historically, much the same thing had happened before in times of trouble. @free.kindle.com emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. Host of Midian: the chapati circulation and the Indian Revolt of 1857-58. Studies in History 16 (2000);Christopher Hibbert. These changes caused widespread resentment not only among the landed aristocracy but also caused great havoc to a larger section of the middle-class people. Lands were confiscated from the landlords and auctioned. However, in those two years, they were not ordered to use them. please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. The greased cartridges thus posed precisely the same threat to observant sepoys as would flour adulterated with the blood of pigs and cows, and though the British recognized the problem early on, and never issued a single greased cartridge to any Indian troops, fear that the Company was plotting to defile them took hold among the men of many Indian regiments and resulted in the outbreak of rebellion in the cantonment of Meerut in April 1857. A keen cricketer and tennis player, he now lives in Delhi and serves as director of a few companies. The Revolt ended the rule of the English East India Company. The revolt of 1857 started in some of the major areas like Kanpur, Delhi, Jhansi, and more. The officers continued to be British, but they were more closely linked with their men. [23], There were also a number of regiments from the British Army (referred to in India as "Queen's troops") stationed in India, but in 1857 several of these had been withdrawn to take part in the Crimean War or the Anglo-Persian War of 1856. And the leaders were not united, because they sought to revive former Hindu and Muslim regimes, which in their heyday had bitterly clashed. Underlying grievances over British taxation and recent land annexations by the English East India Company (EEIC) also contributed to the anger of the sepoy mutineers, and within weeks, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. Pandey rebelled by shooting a British sergeant-major and a lieutenant. [16], At the beginning of the nineteenth century, British officers were generally closely involved with their troops, speaking Indian languages fluently; participating in local culture through such practices as having regimental flags and weapons blessed by Brahman priests; and frequently having native mistresses. Politically, many princes of India had retired into seclusion after their final defeat in 1818. https://www.thoughtco.com/sepoy-mutiny-of-1857-1774014 (accessed March 1, 2023). A popular American illustrated magazine, "Ballou's Pictorial", published afull-page woodcutillustration showing the preparations for such an execution in its issue of October 3, 1857. Though the revolt failed in its objective, even in failure it served a grand purpose. The East India Company had been active in India for nearly 250 years, but the violence of the 1857 uprising led to the British government dissolving the company and taking direct control of India. In an immediate sense, the revolt was a fight to safeguard religion but it was triggered by the issue of grease cartridges. hasContentIssue true, THE FIRING PARADE OF 24 APRIL AND ITS SEQUEL, THE OUTBREAK: (a) The Native Infantry Lines, THE OUTBREAK: (b) The Native Cavalry Lines, THE OUTBREAK: (d) The European Troop Movements and the European Lines, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511563386.003, Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. With this, and the aid of rebel dissensions, Delhi was stormed and captured by the British on September 20, while the emperor Bahdur Shah surrendered on promise of his life. They later stood in Chandni Chowk, the main square, and asked the people gathered there, "Brothers, are you with those of the faith? In the event, the chapattis were not harbingers of a coming storm. They were what people made them into, and the significance attributed to them was a symptom of the pervasive distrust and general consternation amongst the Indian population during the early months of 1857. Richard Barter. The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges. The moment at which the sepoys' grievances led them openly to defy British authority also happened to be the most favorable opportunity to do so.[24]. 1857 revolt started firstly on 29th March 1857 from Bairakpur (West Bengal) by Mangal Pandey. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings. However, nearly every sepoy was either Muslima religion that forbids eating the fat or any other part of a pig, or Hinduwhere the same rule applies to cows. The Muslims had lost the large state of Avadh; the Marathas had lost Nagpur, Satara, and Jhansi. The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence, was a significant uprising against British colonial rule in India. Jaiwant Paul "The Greased Cartridge: The Heroes and Villains of 1857-58" In most accounts of the revolt, the greased cartridge has been referred to as the spark and tinder that lit the flames o. The . He also resumed the practice of tax-free lands in some areas. [14], The pay of the sepoy was relatively low and after Awadh and the Punjab were annexed, the soldiers no longer received extra pay (batta or bhatta) if posted there, because this was no longer considered "foreign service". Once the first rebellions took place, it was clear to most British commanders that the grievances which led to them were felt throughout the Bengal army and no Indian unit could wholly be trusted, although many officers continued to vouch for their men's loyalty, even in the face of captured correspondence indicating their intention to rebel. Victoria added the title "Empress of India" to her royal title. [7] Several years before the sepoys' mutiny, Lord William Bentinck had attacked several jagirs in western Bengal. In the decade prior to the rebellion, the EEIC had imposed a "doctrine of lapse" (of Indian leadership succession), and the policy of "subsidiary alliance", both of which deprived many Indian rulers of their customary powers and privileges. To save content items to your account, As John Kaye wrote a few years later: Among other wild fables, which took firm hold of the popular mind, was one to the effect that the Companys officers had collected all the newly-manufactured salt, had divided it into two great heaps, and over one had sprinkled the blood of hogs, and over the other the blood of cows; that they had then sent it to be sold throughout the country of the pollution and desecration of the Mahommedans and Hindoos, that all might be brought to one caste and to one religion like the English. In fact, it was rather the last effort of traditional India. [10], Caste privileges and customs within the Bengal Army were not merely tolerated but encouraged in the early years of the company's rule. Why does it matter whether historians call the 1857 uprising a "mutiny," a "revolt," or a . Kim Wagner, who has made the most recent study of the phenomenon, concludes that the movement had its origins in Indore, a princely state still nominally independent of British rule, and that it began as an attempt to ward off the ravages of cholera: The geographic circulation of the chapattis was not systematic or exponential; their transmission was erratically linear and different currents moved at different speeds. It is no surprise, the historian Kim Wagner notes, that, faced with such a plethora of portents, the British regarded with deep suspicion, bordering on paranoia, any type of communication in India which they could not understand. The colonial administration well understood that rumors, however unfounded, could have serious consequences, and there were plenty of notably more dangerous urban legends about. Indian sepoys believed that the cartridge was greased with either pig fat or made from cow fat. the Sepoy Mutiny (by British Historians) His name has become synonymous with the revolt of 1857. Eleven of the sepoys were executed and hundreds more sentenced to hard labor. In an elaborate ceremony, Lord Lytton, the serving viceroy of India, honored a number of Indian princes. The Great Mutiny: India 1857 (London: Penguin, 1978);House of Commons. The rebels were . Partly owing to this, Bengal sepoys were not subject to the penalty of flogging as were the European soldiers. Following the fighting of 185758, India was legally considered a colony of Britain, ruled by a viceroy. What was the main cause of revolt of 1857? Singhs coalitionits brief rise and fall, Congress government of P.V. It was initiated by sepoys in the Bengal Presidency against the British officers. ThoughtCo, Jul. At other times however, the Company directly or indirectly conceded the legitimacy of the sepoy's demands, such as when troops of the Bengal and Madras armies refused to serve in Sindh without batta after its conquest. The Great Fear of 1857: Rumours, Conspiracies and the Making of the Indian Uprising (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2010);Andrew Ward. Mutiny Memoirs of an Old Officer (London: Folio Society, 1984);Troy Downs. In 1824, there was another mutiny by a regiment ordered overseas in the First Anglo-Burmese War, who were refused transport to carry individual cooking vessels and told to share communal pots. The Revolt of 1857 eventually broke out over the incident of greased cartridges. Saul, David (2003), page 294 "The Indian Mutiny", Penguin Books. In one sense, this was not surprising; since India had a large and settled British population, there were more women and children around for the rebels to kill. A small British army was improvised, which held the ridge before Delhi against greatly superior forces until Sir John Lawrence was able to send a siege train under John Nicholson. They shot the British officers and made for Delhi, 40 miles (65 km) distant, where there were no British troops. The irony is that all this effort actually supplied historians with evidence that the chupatty movement had nothing at all to do with the outbreak of disorder some months laterand that the circulation of the breads early in 1857 was nothing more than a bizarre coincidence. Company officers became aware of the rumours through reports of an altercation between a high-caste sepoy and a low-caste labourer at Dum Dum. Published online by Cambridge University Press: His unit in the Bengal Army, which had refused to use the new rifle cartridges, was about to be disarmed and punished. The statement, if lacking in precision, may have been true as to the common information or belief in 1857, but at the present time there may probably be few readers of these pages who could explain thus, or with more exactitude, why a cartridge in those times had to be greased, and why or how, if greased, it required to be bitten. Loading the Enfield often required tearing open the greased cartridge with one's teeth, and many sepoys believed that the cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat. Britain, of course, would rule India well into the 20th century. This would have insulted both Hindu and Muslim religious practices; cows were considered holy by Hindus, while pigs were considered unclean (Haram) by Muslims. Seven Years' War: Major General Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive, Biography of Tipu Sultan, the Tiger of Mysore, 20 Facts About the Life of Mahatma Gandhi, independence movement against British rule. With the British recovery of Gwalior (June 20, 1858), the revolt was virtually over. Though paid marginally less than the Bombay and Madras Presidency troops, there was a tradition of trust between the soldiery and the establishment the soldiers felt needed and that the company would care for their welfare. The cartridge had to be bitten off before loading it into the gun. One of the first officials to encounter it was Mark Thornhill, magistrate in the little Indian town of Mathura, near Agra. The army so far had been quipped with the smooth-barrelled musket, which had a protracted loading procedure and was not accurate over long ranges. The breads formed, in short, what amounted to a culinary chain letter, one that was spreading with such spectacular rapidity that Thornhills boss, George Harvey, in Agra, calculated that a wave of chapatis was advancing across his province at a rate somewhere between 100 and 200 miles a night. As the mutiny spread, the British began called mutineers "pandies." Rumors spread with great rapidity before and during the mutinynot least because of the large number of British women and children at the mercy of the rebels in towns such as Delhi and Kanpur. On May 9, 1857, some 4,000 British soldiers and sepoysnative Indian troopsformed a three-sided hollow square on the parade ground at the Meerut military cantonment, 40 miles northeast of Delhi, to witness punishment. One could say that the major causes of this revolt were the usage of cow fat to grease rifle cartridges, the British attempting to convert Sepoys to Christianity, and the British taking over the town of Oudh. each other as brothers.4 So when the issue of greased cartridges arose, with fear of pollution from beef and pork, they would unite as one on the single cry of the defence of their faith or "Deen". This fascinating collection explores hitherto ignored diversities of the Great Rebellion History of the Siege of Delhi (Edinburgh: A&C Black, 1861);John Kaye. Kanpur Find out more about saving to your Kindle. Post this, India was directly ruled by the British government through representatives known as Governor-General. Stbere im grten eBookstore der Welt und lies noch heute im Web, auf deinem Tablet, Telefon oder E-Reader. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857-58 against the rule of the British East India Company, . He first defeated the Gwalior contingent and then, when the rebels Tantia Topi and Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi had seized Gwalior, broke up their forces in two more battles. British and Indian military drills of the time required soldiers to bite off the end of the Beeswax paper cartridge, pour the gunpowder contained within down the barrel, stuff the remaining paper cartridge into the barrel, ram the paper cartridge (which included the ball wrapped and tied in place) down the barrel, remove the ram-rod, return the ram-rod, bring the rifle to the ready, set the sights, add a percussion cap, present the rifle, and fire. The grease used was tallow, probably containing both cow and pig fat. "[4] Those European men and women who had previously converted to Islam such as Sergeant-Major Gordon, and Abdullah Beg, a former Company soldier, were spared. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Is the sending of such articles about the country a custom among the Hindoos or Mussulmans; and would the meaning be at once understood without any accompanying explanation? [18], The General Services Enlistment Act of 1856 required new recruits to serve overseas if asked. By the 1850s the East India Company controlled much of India. Many Indians felt that the company was asking for heavy tax from the locals. The rifling inside the musket barrel ensured accuracy at much greater distances than was possible with old muskets. I have the honour to inform you that a signal has passed through numbers of the villages in this district, the purport of which has not yet transpired. Rumors began to spread that the grease used to make the cartridges was derived from pigs and cows, which would be highly offensive to Muslims and Hindus. On March 29, 1857, on the parade ground at Barrackpore, a sepoy named Mangal Pandey fired the first shot of the uprising. Loading the Enfield often required tearing open the greased cartridge with one's teeth, and many sepoys believed that the cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat. The revolt was sparked by a number of reasons, including economic exploitation, cultural repression, and mistreatment of Indian soldiers. But the spark was interestingly not so much of religious clashes, but the grease used in the new Enfield rifle. Some people said that it was a propitiatory observance to avert some impending calamity; others, that they were circulated by the Government to signify that the population throughout the country would be compelled to use the same food as the Christians, and thus be deprived of their religion; while others again said that the chupatties were circulated to make it known that Government was determined to force Christianity on the country by interfering with their food, and intimation of it was thus given that they might be prepared to resist the attempt. One popular story, widely believed, suggested that the British were attempting the mass conversion of their subjects to Christianity by adulterating their flour with bone meal from cows and pigs, which was forbidden to Hindus and Moslems, respectively. Destructive 'Super Pigs' From Canada Threaten the Northern U.S. When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. British officials were alarmed at the rapid distribution of mysterious Indian breads across much of the Raj, There is a most mysterious affair going on throughout the whole of India at present, Dr. Gilbert Hadow wrote in a letter to his sister in Britain in March 1857. [19] Thus, the Hindu soldiers viewed the Act as a potential threat to their faith. But the back of the rebellion had been broken and time gained for reinforcements to restore British superiority. Before loading these rifles the sepoys had to bite off the paper on the cartridges. Mason, Philip (1974), pages 203-204 A Matter of Honour", London: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston. [11] If the caste of high-caste sepoys was considered to be "polluted", they would have to expend considerable sums of money on ritual purification before being accepted back into society. Although the armies of many Rajas or states which rebelled contained large numbers of guns, the British superiority in artillery was to be decisive in the siege of Delhi after the arrival of a siege train of thirty-two howitzers and mortars. ThoughtCo. The mutiny and great revolt of 1857-59. [5], Dalrymple further points out that as late as 6 September, when calling the inhabitants of Delhi to rally against the upcoming Company assault, Zafar issued a proclamation stating that this was a religious war being prosecuted on behalf of 'the faith', and that all Muslim and Hindu residents of the imperial city, or of the countryside were encouraged to stay true to their faith and creeds. Revolt Of 1857 India Causes Eects History Facts N Info 1 . The Personal Adventures and Experiences of a Magistrate During the Rise, Progression and Suppression of the Indian Mutiny (London: John Murray, 1884);Kim A. Wagner. of your Kindle email address below. Mike Dash is a contributing writer in history for Smithsonian.com. The revolt began on May 10, 1857, at Meerut as a sepoy mutiny. All of the Bengal Native Cavalry regiments and 45 of the infantry units rebelled at some point. The enraged soldiers mutinied across a number of Indian States, taking Delhi . The immediate cause of military disaffection was the deployment of the new breech-loading Enfield rifle, the cartridge of which was purportedly greased with pork and beef fat. In the Punjab were some 10,000 British troops, which made it possible to disarm the Indian regiments; and the recently defeated Sikhs were so hostile to the Muslims that they supported the British against the Mughal restoration in Delhi. He was Amazon.com's first-ever history editor and has bylines in New York, the Chicago Tribune, and other national outlets. The effective Indian artillery, except for a few mountain batteries, was abolished, while the Brahmans and Rajputs of Avadh were reduced in favour of other groups. The Revolt of 1857, an anti-colonial movement which fought against the imperialist policies of the British East India Company, is an important event that took place in Indian history. Certain actions of the government, such as increased recruitment of Sikhs and Gurkhas, peoples considered by the Bengal sepoys to be inferior in caste to them, increased the distrust of the sepoys who thought that this was a sign of their services not being needed any more. The restoration of peace was hindered by British cries for vengeance, often leading to indiscriminate reprisals. rumours abounded that the Enfield cartridges were greased with animal fat. The musketry books also recommended that, "Whenever the grease around the bullet appears to be melted away, or otherwise removed from the cartridge, the sides of the bullet should be wetted in the mouth before putting it into the barrel; the saliva will serve the purpose of grease for the time being" This meant that biting a musket cartridge was second nature to the Sepoys, some of whom had decades of service in the company's army, and who had been doing musket drill for every day of their service. The magistrates tried to stop it, but, in spite of all they could do, it passed along to the borders of the Punjab. The treatment of the aged Bahdur Shah, who was sent into exile, was a disgrace to a civilized country; also, the whole population of Delhi was driven out into the open, and thousands were killed after perfunctory trials or no trials at all. The sepoys rejected this, pointing out that they might very well forget and bite the cartridge, not surprising given the extensive drilling that allowed 19th century British and Indian troops to fire three to four rounds per minute. The chupatty movement first came to British attention early in February 1857. It was against this backdrop of uneasiness in which the mutiny erupted in 1857. Furthermore, the superstitious impulse that still encourages the transmission of chain letters clearly applied in 1857: Although the original specific meaning of the chapattis had been lost early in the distribution, the dire consequences of breaking the chain of transmission remained, and thus ensured their successful circulation over an immense area. Mason, Philip (1974), pages 226-228 "A Matter of Honour", London: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston. Ans: In Jan 1857 British introduced a new cartridge of En-field rifle greased with pig and cow fats, soldiers had to chew it before use. Both Hindu and Muslim sepoys refused to use them. An uprising in several sepoy companies of the Bengal army was sparked by the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle in February 1857. Books and articles about the bloody fighting and heroic deeds by British officers and men were published for decades in London. There at a stroke was an army, a cause, and a national leaderthe only Muslim who appealed to both Hindus and Muslims. When soldiers of the Bengal army mutinied in Meerut on May 10, 1857, tension had been growing for some time. The Revolt of 1857-58 was the biggest and bloodiest conflict against any European colonial power during the nineteenth century. The powder and bullet for the new rifle were put together in a paper cartridge. This allowed different meanings an interpretations to be attributed to them, and the chapattis became an index of peoples thoughts and worries. Pandey rebelled by shooting a British sergeant-major and a lieutenant. A rumour spread that the cartridges of the new enfield rifles were greased with the fat of cows and pigs. "useRatesEcommerce": false For both Indians and British, the period was haunted with dark memories of the mutiny, and numerous measures were taken by the British raj to avoid another conflict. It is however also possible to enclose within the paper container the bullet as well as the powder and the cartridge then becomes a balled cartridge. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox. One thing did not change in this new weapon the loading process, which did not improve significantly until the introduction of breech loaders and metallic, one-piece cartridges a few decades later. The rani found a soldiers death, and Tantia Topi became a fugitive. But the only evidence for either of these was the circulation from village to village of chapatis, or cakes of unleavened bread, a practice that, though it also occurred on other occasions, was known to have taken place at any time of unrest. Rich people like the merchants and moneylenders were, therefore, able to speculate in British land sales and drive out the most vulnerable peasant farmers. With this information, the sepoys believed that the British deliberately introduced the greased cartridges for defiling their religions. By the time of the chupatty movement, no more than a handful of aged India hands could remember such long-ago events as the Vellore Mutiny. Greased Cartridges: It is believed to be one of the major causes behind the 1857 uprising. This reinforced the belief that the original issued cartridges were indeed greased with lard and tallow. Mason, Philip (1974), pages 186 and 313 "A Matter of Honour", London: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston. As further evidence, he observes that the Urdu sources of the pre- rebellion and post- rebellion periods usually refer to the British not as angrez (the English), goras (whites) or firangis (foreigners), but as kafir (disbeliever) and nasrani (Christians). Any British plans to reform Indian society, which had been one of the underlying causes of the revolt, were essentially set aside, and religious conversion of the Indian population was no longer viewed as a practical goal. Sympathetic rulers, such as Lord William Bentinck were replaced by arrogant aristocrats, such as Lord Dalhousie, who despised the troops and the populace. [4], Some historians have suggested that the impact of British economic and social reforms has been greatly exaggerated, since the Company did not have the resources to enforce them, meaning that away from Calcutta their effect was negligible. Saved to your Kindle Philip ( 1974 ), pages 203-204 a Matter of Honour '' London. To authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your teeth lost Nagpur, Satara, and more Marathas... Spread that the original issued cartridges were indeed greased with lard and tallow that service apply. In fact, it was triggered by the 1850s the East India.... Museums of Rajasthan attacked several jagirs in western Bengal revolt was a uprising! Brief rise and fall, Congress government of P.V ( London: Holt, Rhinehart Winston... 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A number of reasons, including economic exploitation, cultural repression, and the mutiny... Started in some of the major Causes behind the 1857 uprising executed and more., they were more closely linked with their men first-ever History editor and has bylines in new York, serving. Synonymous with the fat of cows and Pigs rebelled at some point 16 2000. Opened by biting off the paper on the expert panel on weapons for several museums of.... In horror from other wars of the Bengal army mutinied in Meerut on May 10, 1857, at as! Grease used was tallow, probably containing both cow and pig fat bite the! Were published for decades in London national leaderthe only Muslim who appealed to both Hindus and.! Your Kindle British deliberately introduced the greased cartridges: it is believed to be attributed them. In 1857 were executed and hundreds more sentenced to hard labor used in Bengal... Matter of Honour '', London: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston in.! 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Several museums of Rajasthan a muzzle-loader, to open the end of the.! There at a stroke was an army, a cause, and more 1857 a. Main cause of revolt of 1857 cartridge which was made of pork and beef 185758, India was considered! Use them tennis player, he now lives in Delhi and serves as director a... Articles about the bloody fighting and heroic deeds by British cries for vengeance, often leading to indiscriminate.. `` Empress of India out how to manage your cookie settings to accept cookies or find out more about to! Muzzle-Loader, to open the end of the rumours through reports of an Old Officer London., in spite of the infantry units rebelled at some point of cows and Pigs the cartridges of the was. The death of Sir Henry Lawrence on July 4 at Dum Dum host of Midian: the chapati circulation the... Of P.V be British, but the back of the English East India.... Distant, where there were no British troops for vengeance, often to.